IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve)

Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest)

Geographical Location The three wildlife sanctuaries lie on disjunct deltaic islands in the Sundarbans Forest Division of Khulna District, close to the border with India and just west of the main outflow of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. Sundarbans West lies between the Raimangal and Malancha rivers at 21°42'-21°47'N, 89°12'-89°18'E; Sundarbans South, including Putney Island, lies between the Malancha and Kunga rivers at 21°44'-21°55'N, 89°19'-89°28'E; and Sundarbans East consists of that portion of Compartment 6 lying between the Katka and Supati Khals (creeks) at 21°50'-21°57'N, 89°45'-89°50'E. All three sanctuaries are bounded to the south by the Bay of Bengal.

Date and History of Establishment All three wildlife sanctuaries were established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, having first been gazetted as forest reserves in 1875. The entire Sundarbans is reserved forest, established under the Forest Act, 1927.

Area Sundarbans West 9,069ha

Sundarbans South 17,878ha

Sundarbans East 5,439ha

A proposed extension to Sundarbans East would enlarge its total area to 18,538ha (Blower, 1985). Sundarbans National Park (133,010ha), a World Heritage Site, lies to the west in India but is not contiguous with Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary in Bangladesh.

Land Tenure State

Altitude Ranges from sea level to 3m.

Physical Features The Sundarbans, covering some 10,000 sq.km of land and water, is part of the world's largest delta (80,000 sq.km) formed from sediments deposited by three great rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, which converge on the Bengal Basin (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). The total area of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is 5,771 sq.km, of which 4,071 sq.km is land and the rest water (Christensen, 1984).

The land is moulded by tidal action, resulting in a distinctive physiography. The whole area is intersected by an intricate network of interconnecting waterways, of which the larger channels of often a mile or more in width run in a generally north-south direction. Innumerable small khals drain the land at each ebb. Rivers tend to be long and straight, a consequence of the strong tidal forces and the clay and silt deposits which resist erosion. Easily eroded sands collect at the river mouths and form banks and chars, which are blown into dunes above the high-water mark by the strong south-west monsoon. Finer silts are washed out into the Bay of Bengal but, where they are protected from wave action, mud flats form in the lee of the dunes. These become overlain with sand from the dunes, and develop into grassy middens. This process of island building continues for as long as the area on the windward side is exposed to wave action. With the formation of the next island further out, silt begins to accumulate along the shore of the island and sand is blown or washed away (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Apart from Baleswar River, which flows into the Bay of Bengal just east of Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, the waterways carry little freshwater as they are cut off from the Ganges, the outflow of which has shifted from the Hooghly-Bhagirathi channels in India progressively eastwards since the 17th century. They are kept open largely by the diurnal tidal flow (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983).

Alluvial deposits are geologically very recent and deep. The soil is a silty clay loam with alternate layers of clay, silt and sand. The surface is clay except on the seaward side of islands in the coastal limits, where sandy beaches occur. In the eastern part of the Sundarbans the surface soil is soft and fertile, whereas it is harder and less suitable for tree growth in the west (Choudhury, 1968). The pH averages 8.0 (Christensen, 1984).

Climate Rainfall is heavy and humidity high (80%) due to the proximity of the Bay of Bengal. About 80% of the rain falls in the monsoon, which lasts from June to October. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 1800mm at Khulna, north of the Sundarbans, to 2790mm on the coast. There is a six-month dry season during which evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. Conditions are most saline in February-April, the depletion of soil moisture being coupled with reduced freshwater flow from upstream. Temperatures rise from daily minima of 2-4°C in winter to a maximum of about 43°C in March and may exceed 32°C in the monsoon. Storms are common in May and October-November and may develop into cyclones, usually accompanied by tidal waves of up to 7.5m high (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Climatic data for Khulna are summarised by Christensen (1984).

Vegetation The mangroves of the Sundarbans are unique when compared to non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest. Unlike the latter, the Rhizophoraceae are of only minor importance and the dominant species are sund'ri Heritiera fomes, from which the Sundarbans takes its name, and gewa Excoecaria agallocha. The reason for this difference is the large freshwater influence in the north-eastern part and the elevated level of the ground surface. The Sundarbans can be classified as moist tropical seral forest, comprising a mosaic of beach forest and tidal forest (Champion, 1936). Of the latter, there are four types: low mangrove forests, tree mangrove forests, salt-water Heritiera forests and freshwater Heritiera forests. Choudhury (1968), on the basis of water salinity, recognises three zones. Sundarbans East falls within the freshwater zone, which is dominated by H. fomes. Gewa occurs in varying amounts, and passur Xylocarpus moluccensis and kankra Bruguiera gymnorrhiza occur in more frequently flooded areas. The understory comprises singra Cynometra ramiflora on dry soils, amur Amoora cucullata on moister soils and goran Ceriops decandra especially in the more saline areas. Sundarbans South lies in the moderately salt-water zone, in which Excoecaria agallocha is dominant. It is mixed with Heritiera and has a dense understory of Ceriops. Xylocarpus is more frequent in this zone. Sundarbans West occurs within the salt-water zone, which supports sparse E. agallocha, a dense understory of Ceriops, and dense patches of hantal palm Phoenix paludosa on drier soils. Dhundal and passur Xylocarpus spp., and Bruguiera occur sporadically throughout the area. Sund'ri and gewa cover most of the Sundarbans but Oryza coarctata, Nypa fruticans and Imperata cylindrica are prevalent on mud flats (Khan, 1986). Large stands of keora Sonneratia apetala are found on newly accreted mudbanks and provide important wildlife habitat (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987).

An account of the flora of the mangrove forest of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta is given by Prain (1903). Seidensticker and Hai (1983) report a total of 334 plant species, representing 245 genera, present in the Bangladesh portion of the delta, and list principal woody and herbaceous species. Chaffey and Sandom (1985) provide a detailed list of trees and shrubs in the Bangladesh portion. Islam (1973) provides an account of the algal flora of the mangroves.

Fauna The Sundarbans is the only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for a great variety of faunal species. The presence (or former presence) of at least 40 mammmal species has been documented (Sarker, 1986). Of these, no less than five spectacular species, namely Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus (E), water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (E), swamp deer Cervus duvauceli (E), gaur Bos gaurus (V) and probably hog deer Axis porcinus have become locally extirpated since the beginning of this century (Salter, 1984). The only primate is rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, considered by Blower (1985) to number in the region of 40,000 to 68,200, based on surveys by Hendrichs (1975) and Khan (1986), respectively, as compared to the much higher estimate of 126,220 derived by Gittins (1981).

The Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India support one of the largest populations of tiger Panthera tigris (E), with an estimated 350 in that of the former (Hendrichs, 1975). Again, Gittins' estimate of 430-450 tigers may be over-optimistic (see Blower, 1985). Spotted deer Cervus axis, estimates of which vary between 52,600 (Khan, 1986) and 80,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), and wild boar Sus scrofa, estimated at 20,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), are the principal prey of the tiger, which also has a notorious reputation for man-eating. Of the three species of otter, smooth Indian otter Lutra perspicillata, estimated to number 20,000 (Hendrichs, 1975), is domesticated by fishermen and used to drive fish into their nets (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Other mammals include three species of wild cat, Felis bengalensis, F. chaus and F. viverrina, and Gangetic dolphin Platanista gangetica, which occurs in some of the larger waterways. Species accounts and a check-list are given by Salter (1984).

The varied and colourful bird-life to be seen along its waterways is one of the Sundarbans' greatest attractions. Over 270 species have been recorded (Scott, 1989), including about 95 species of waterfowl (Scott, 1989) and 38 species of raptors (Sarker, 1985b). Among the many which may be readily seen by the visitor are no less than nine species of kingfisher, including brown-winged and stork-billed kingfishers, Pelargopsis amauroptera and P. capensis, respectively; the magnificent white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster which, at a density of one individual per 53.1km of waterways (Sarker, 1985), is quite common; also the much rarer grey-headed fish eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, Pallas's fish-eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus and several other raptors. Herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers, whimbrel, curlew and numerous other waders are to be seen along the muddy banks and on the chars or sandbanks which become exposed during the dry season. There are many species of gulls and terns, especially along the coast and the larger waterways. Apart from those species particularly associated with the sea and wetlands, there is also a considerable variety of forest birds such as woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongos, mynahs, minivets, babblers and many others (Salter, 1984). Further details of the avifauna are given by Scott (1989).

Some 45 reptile species and 11 of amphibians have been recorded (Sarker, 1986). Of these mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) is now extinct, probably as a result of past over-exploitation, although it still occurs in at least one location nearby (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). Estuarine crocodile C. porosus (E) still survives but its numbers have been greatly depleted through hunting and trapping for skins. There are also three species of monitor, Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens and V. salvator, and Indian python Python molurus (V). Five species of marine turtle, namely loggerhead Caretta caretta (V), green Chelonia mydas, hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata, olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea and leatherback Dermochelys coriacea, have been recorded from Bangladesh waters in the Bay of Bengal and are reported to occur along the Sundarbans coast. River terrapin Batagur baska (E) is also present. The eighteen recorded snake species include king cobra Ophiophagus hannah and spectacled cobra Naja naja, three vipers and six sea-snakes (Salter, 1984).

Over 120 species of fish are reported to be commonly caught by commercial fishermen in the Sundarbans (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). According to Mukherjee (1975) only brackish water species and marine forms are found in the Indian Sundarbans, freshwater species being totally absent. This may be assumed to apply also to the Bangladesh Sundarbans, except possibly in the eastern portion where there is freshwater in Baleswar River. Mention should also be made of mud-skippers or gobys which occur in large numbers and are a characteristic feature of mangrove swamps.

Crustacea account for by far the largest proportion of animal biomass, with an estimated 40 million kg of fiddler crabs and 100 million kg of mud crabs (Hendrichs, 1975). The nutrient-rich waters of the Sundarbans also yield a considerable harvest of shrimps, prawns and lobsters. The area supports a varied insect population including large numbers of honey-bees, honey and beeswax being among the economically important products. It appears, however, that the insect life of the Sundarbans has so far been little studied.

Cultural Heritage There is archaeological evidence of earlier human occupation on the deltaic islands. The human settlements are indicative of the former presence of abundant freshwater, both from the Ganges and from non-saline ground water. Human occupation ceased in the 17th century, reportedly due to pirate attacks (Christensen, 1984).

Local Human Population There are no villages in the Sundarbans, but it provides a livelihood at certain seasons of the year for an estimated 300,000 people, working variously as wood-cutters, fishermen, and gatherers of honey, golpatta leaves (Nipa fruticans) and grass. Fishermen come in their boats from as far away as Chittagong and establish temporary encampments at various sites along the coast, where they remain until the approach of the monsoon season in April before returning to their homes. Apart from the large numbers of people employed by contractors in the commercial exploitation of sund'ri and other tree species, the local people are themselves dependent on the forest and waterways for such necessities as firewood, timber for boats, poles for house-posts and rafters, golpatta leaf for roofing, grass for matting, reeds for fencing and fish for their own consumption. The season for collecting honey and wax is limited to two and a half months commencing annually on 1 April. Thousands of people, having first obtained their permits from the Forest Department, enter the forest in search of bee nests which are collected and then crushed to extract the honey and wax. The total quantity of these commodities collected during the 1983 season was 232 tonnes, which at a market price of 30 Tk (US$ 1) per ser (approximately 0.9 kg) represents an appreciable source of income to local communities (Blower, 1985).

Visitors and Visitor Facilities Few tourists visit the Sundarbans due to the difficulty and cost of arranging transport and to the lack of suitable accommodation and other facilities. The area has no potential for mass tourism but it does offer obvious possibilities for limited special-interest tourism from October to April or May. The use of launches equipped with catering and sleeping facilities is considered more practicable than permanent land-based facilities and would provide greater flexibility. There is, however, a large well-equipped rest house belonging to the Port Authority at Hiron Point, Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary, and a smaller one belonging to the Forest Department at Katka in Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1985).

Scientific Research and Facilities Considerable research has been carried out on the Sundarbans ecosystem and its wildlife. A three-month field study of tiger, concentrating on the problem of man-eating, and other vertebrates and invertebrates, was undertaken by Hendrichs (1975) in 1971. Other faunal surveys include those of Gittins (1981) and Khan (1986) for rhesus macaque, Khan (1986) for spotted deer, Sarker and Sarker (1986) for birds, and Sarker (1985a, 1985b) and Sarker and Sarker (1985) for birds of prey. Further details of wildlife studies and surveys can be found in a synopsis compiled by Salter (1984).

Conservation Value The mangrove forests of the Sundarbans are among the richest and most extensive in the world. The Bangladesh portion, covering 6% of total land area, represents over half of the country's remaining natural forest. The forests and waterways support a wide range of fauna, including a number of species threatened with extinction. As one of the most biologically productive of all natural ecosystems, it is of great economic importance as a source of timber, fish and numerous other products (Blower, 1985).

Of the three wildlife sanctuaries, Sundarbans East appears to be most valuable in terms of diversity of habitat and scenic attraction but is considered too small to be effective. It is unclear whether or not the small island known locally as Putkadya, about 2km offshore, is included within this sanctuary but it should be in view of its suitability as habitat for waders and as a nesting site for marine turtles. Sundarbans West and Sundarbans South would seem to be of adequate size (Blower, 1985).

Conservation Management Sundarbans East is administered from offices at Katka and Tiger Point, and Sundarbans South from Hiron Point. No office has yet been established within Sundarbans West. There are no recognised local rights within the reserved forest, entry and collection of forest produce being subject to permits issued by the Forest Department. The Department may issue hunting licences under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, but in practice none is issued and the whole Sundarbans is thus effectively closed to legal hunting. Under the provision of this Act, various activities are prohibited within the wildlife sanctuaries, including inter alia residence, cultivation of land, damage to vegetation, hunting, introduction of domestic animals and setting of fires. Any of these prohibitions may be relaxed, however, for scientific purposes, aesthetic enjoyment or "improvement" of scenery (Blower, 1985).

The Sundarbans has been the subject of a series of successively more comprehensive working plans since its declaration as reserved forest, the most recent of which points out the importance of the tiger in controlling the spotted deer population, and also mentions the intention of establishing compartments 3-7 as a 'game sanctuary', a total area of some 52,320ha (Choudhury, 1968). In the event, when Sundarbans East was eventually established it included only a part of Compartment 6, only one-tenth of the area originally proposed. A likely explanation is that the recommended areas contain high-quality timber relative to that gazetted, indicating that Sundardans East was chosen on the basis of its unimportance to forestry, rather than value to wildlife. Sundarbans South and West may have been selected for the same reason, as timber within both sites is of lower quality (Olivier, 1979). A plan relating specifically to wildlife conservation was prepared under the joint sponsorship of the World Wildlife Fund and the National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). Emphasis is directed towards managing the tiger, together with all wildlife, as an integral part of forest management that assures the sustainable harvesting of forest products and maintains this coastal zone in a way that meets the needs of the local human population. The Sundarbans Forest Development Planning Mission, carried out by FAO in conjunction with the Bangladesh Forest Department in February-May 1984, collected all available data related to the use and management of forest products, wildlife and fisheries, assessed development potential and prepared proposals for further integrated development and conservation of the natural resources of the area (Christensen, 1984; Salter, 1984). More recently, Blower (1985) reviewed wildlife conservation in the Sundarbans Reserved Forest as part of the Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, carried out by the Bangladesh Forest Department and the Land Resources Development Centre of the UK Overseas Development Administration. The main purpose of the project is to provide the necessary data on which to base future exploitation of the forest for sustainable use of timber, fuelwood and other forest produce, with due consideration to wildlife conservation and the social amenity value of the area. It has been recommended that the Sundarbans be managed as a single unit with full protection afforded to both wildlife and habitat in the wildlife sanctuaries, and with forest resources exploited at sustainable levels but wildlife protected elsewhere in the reserved forest. The establishment of intermediate buffer zones, in which disturbance is kept to a minimum through restriction of access, is recommended in areas peripheral to sanctuary boundaries. A new working plan is due to be prepared, based on data collected by the project, and is expected to include detailed prescriptions concerning the conservation and management of the sanctuaries (Blower, 1985). Formulation of a strategy and integrated plan for the sustained multiple-use, conservation and management of natural resources in the Sundarbans Reserved Forest is due to commence shortly with funding from UNEP (Project: BGD/84/056/A/01/12).

Management Constraints A long-term ecological change is taking place in the Sundarbans, due to the eastward migration of the Ganges, abandonment of some distributaries, diversion of water and withdrawals for irrigation. (Up to 40% of the dry season flow of the Ganges has been diverted upstream, following the completion of the Farraka Barrage in India in 1974.) Decreased freshwater flushing of the Sundarbans results in increased saline intrusion, particularly in the dry season. Concern has been expressed about recent indications of apparent deterioration in the flora, including localised die-back of sund'ri, commercially the most valuable of tree species. Top-dying of sund'ri is most likely associated with the decrease in freshwater flow, either as a direct effect of increasing salinity or other associated edaphic changes. A gradual replacement of Heritiera with Excoecaria, therefore, is a likely long-term effect (Christensen, 1984). While deterioration in the vegetation is already well-documented (International Engineering Company, 1977, 1980) and is the subject of continuing study, no attention has yet been given to the possible effects which these changes might have on the fauna. It is perhaps significant, however, that the stocking of spotted deer appears lower in western areas, where salinity is highest, than in the east where it is lowest. Oil spills are another potential threat and could cause immense damage, especially to aquatic fauna and seabirds and probably also to the forest itself (Blower, 1985).

Cyclones and tidal waves cause some damage to the forest along the sea-face, and are reported to result occasionally in considerable mortality among spotted deer. The most immediate threat is over-exploitation, both of timber resources, which may have already taken place, and also of the fauna. Agricultural encroachment has already occurred to a limited extent on the eastern and western boundaries and, with increasing population pressure in surrounding settled areas, could reach serious proportions unless checked. Fishermen's camps are a major source of disturbance. There is extensive hunting and trapping, not only by fishermen and woodcutters but also reportedly by naval and military personnel from Hiron Point in Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1985). A total of 118 offences was recorded and over 3,300m of deer nets removed between 1981/82 and 1986/87 (Habib, 1989). The capture of adult marine turtles and Batagur in fishing nets and their subsequent killing and marketing for food is a potentially serious problem (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987).

The Sundarbans has been notorious for its man-eating tigers since the 17th century. Numbers of reported deaths has varied from 0 to 47 (mean = 22.1) per annum during the period 1947-1983 (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). In 1988, 65 deaths were reported during a four-month period (The Guardian, 28 December 1988). Noting that tigers that hunt man like any other prey occurred only in the south and west, Hendrichs (1975) hypothesised on a possible linkage between high salinity levels, due to the absence of freshwater, and man-killing. This is not substantiated by more recent analyses, which suggest that man-killing may be at least partly correlated with the availability of easy prey (humans) and the frequency of man-tiger interactions (Salter, 1984; Siddiqi and Choudhury, 1987).

Staff Sundarbans East: one deputy ranger, one forest guard; Sundarbans South: one forest ranger, two forest guards; Sundarbans West: one deputy ranger, one forest guard. Staff are responsible for the protection of the sanctuaries but, in practice, they are involved primarily with collection of revenue and other normal Forest Department duties (Blower, 1985).

Budget No information

Local Addresses

Assistant Conservator of Forests, Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarankhola, Khulna District; Assistant Conservator of Forests, Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary, Nalianala, Khulna District; Range Officer, Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary, Burigoalini, Khulna District

References

Blower, J. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, Bangladesh. Wildlife conservation in the Sundarbans. Project Report 151. Overseas Development Administration, Land Resources Development Centre, Surbiton, UK. 39 pp.

Chaffey, D.R. and Sadom, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forestry Inventory Project. A glossary of vernacular plant names and a field key to trees. Overseas Development Administration, Land Resources Development Centre, Surbiton, UK. 23 pp.

Champion, H.G. (1936). A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian Forest Record (New Series) 1: 1-286.

Choudhury, A.M. (1968). Working plan of the Sundarban Forest Division for the period from 1960-61 to 1979-80. Vol. I. Government of East Pakistan, Forest Department, Dacca. 82 pp.

Christensen, B. (1984). Ecological aspects of the Sundarbans. FO: TCP/BGD/2309 (Mf). FAO, Rome. 42 pp.

Gittins, S.P. (1981). A survey of the primates of Bangladesh. Unpublished report. Fauna Preservation Society, London. 64 pp.

Habib, M.G. (1989). Wildlife management of the Sundarban - a case study. In: Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh. German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of Bangladesh/Unesco, Dhaka. Pp. 161-168.

Hendrichs, H. (1975). The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans mangrove forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 23: 161-199.

Husain, K.Z. Sarker, S.U. and Rahman, M.M. (1983). Summer birds of the Sundarbans' 'Nilkamal Sanctuary', Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 11(1): 48-51.

International Engineering Company (1977). Special studies. Bangladesh Water Development Board, Dacca.

International Engineering Company (1980). Southwest regional plan. Bangladesh Water Development Board, Dacca.

Islam, A.K.M.N. (1973). The algal flora of the Sundarbans mangrove forests, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Botany 2(2): 11-36.

Khan, M.A.R. (1986). Wildlife in Bangladesh mangrove ecosystem. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 83: 32-48.

Mukherjee, A.K. (1975). The Sundarbans of India and its biota. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72: 1-20.

Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project No. BGD/72/005. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp.

Salter, R.E. (1984). Integrated development of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh: status and utilization of wildlife. FO: TCP/BGD/2309(MF). Report No. W/R0034. FAO, Rome. 59 pp.

Sarker, S.U. (1985a). Ecological observation on the endangered whitebellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin) in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. In: Symposium on endangered marine animals and marine parks. Vol. 4. Endangered and/or vulnerable other marine invertebrates and vertebrates. Paper No. 58. Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin.

Sarker, S.U. (1985b). Density, productivity and biomass of raptoral birds of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Proceedings of SAARC Seminar on Biomass Production, 15 April 1985, Dhaka. Pp. 84-92.

Sarker, S.U. (1986). Management of wildlife in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Paper presented at the International Seminar cum Workshop on Wildlife Conservation in Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1-4 December 1986. 7 pp.

Sarker, S.U. and Sarker, N.J. (1985). Birds of prey and their conservation in the Sundarbans mangrove forests, Khulna, Bangladesh. ICBP Technical Publication No. 5. Pp. 205-209.

Sarker, S.U. and Sarker, N.J. (1986). Status and distribution of birds of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. The Journal of Noami 3: 19-33.

Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp.

Seidensticker, J. and Hai, M.A. (1983). The Sundarbans Wildlife Management Plan: conservation in the Bangladesh coastal zone. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 120 pp.

Siddiqi, N.A. and Choudhury, J.H. (1987). Maneating behaviour of tigers (Panthera tigris Linn) of the Sundarbans - twenty-eight years' record analysis. Tigerpaper 14(3): 26-32.

Date February 1987, updated August 1990