1992 Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems

KINGDOM OF SWAZILAND

Area 17,366 sq. km

Population 788,000 (1990)

Natural increase: 3.57% per annum

Economic Indicators

GDP: US$ 787 per capita (1987)

GNP: US$ 790 per capita (1988)

Policy and Legislation Swaziland was a British Protectorate from 1903 until 1968, under the administration of which the first modern wildlife and forestry laws were created (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991). The Forest Preservation Act of 1910 covers commercial and production aspects of forests and provides for the preservation of trees and forests growing on government land and on Swazi nation land constituted under the Concessions Partition Act No. 28, 1907. Although technically still in force, this legislation, which prohibits the cutting of indigenous trees on such lands, is unlikely to be used today as much of the rural population still use and rely upon indigenous timber for building and fuel (IUCN, 1986; Masson, pers. comm., 1991). In 1952, the Flora Protection Act was passed (No. 45, 1952), which authorises the establishment of indigenous flora reserves, and specifies controls on the exploitation of certain rare or desirable species of plant; this Act is to be amended to include the category of "specially protected flora" (see Annex). The Forest Legislation of 1979 prohibits the cutting, removal, sale or purchase of indigenous timber without permission from the Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives. Forest legislation in Swaziland currently makes no provision for forest reserves. Steps are being taken to develop a clear policy document relating to sustainable utilisation of indigenous forests, which will be followed by appropriate legislation (Attwell, pers. comm., 1991; Davis et al., 1986; IUCN, 1986. 1987b).

The Game Act No.51, 1953 makes provision for the establishment of game sanctuaries (see Annex); it is also the principal act dealing with hunting of and trade in game animals, including birds considered to be game. It remains the mainstay of wildlife protection in the country apart from areas gazetted under the Swaziland National Trust Commission Act (below), and has recently been modified by the Game (Amendment) Act, to which His Majesty the King assented with effect from 14 January 1991. The major change promulgated by the Amendment is stiffer penalties for poachers (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991; Masson, pers. comm., 1991).

In 1972, the National Trust Commission Act replaced the 1953 Game Act within SNTC-gazetted protected areas, and made provision for the establishment of two categories of protected area, viz. national park and nature reserve (see Annex). It also laid down the framework for the establishment of a parastatal body known as the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC), which is responsible for the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage of the country (J. Culverwell, pers.comm., 1991).

Despite provisions in the Game Act for appointment of officers, there was little enforcement of any legislation until the creation of the first protected area in 1962. The Game Act is seldom enforced outside the protected areas gazetted under its regulations. There has been sporadic success in enforcing the Wild Birds Protection Act and Flora Protection Act. The flora and fauna laws as they exist are of little use in combating the widespread environmental degradation outside of protected areas, resulting from continual heavy grazing and dense subsistence farming (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

International Activities At an international level, Swaziland is not party to any of the major conventions dealing with protected areas. At a regional level, Swaziland is signatory to the 1968 (Algiers) African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (African Convention), which establishes several protected area categories.

Administration and Management The primary conservation authority in Swaziland is the parastatal Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC), which assumes direct responsibility for protected areas that it purchases and technical responsibility for privately-owned areas gazetted under the SNTC Act. The SNTC was originally responsible to the Minister for Agriculture and Co-operatives, but this authority was recently transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources. Inter alia, it is responsible for the creation and management of nature reserves, national parks, national monuments and areas of cultural significance. Its activities are directed by a Chief Executive Officer under the control of a body of commissioners, instated by the Minister, for a period of three years. The commissioners include a Chairperson and six appointed and four elected commissioners. There are about 80 nature reserve staff, a director of parks, ecologist, administrative accountant and clerical staff (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

Other bodies connected with protected areas are the Swazi National Council, who fund the nationally-owned Hlane Game Sanctuary; the management of this area is, however, by the same management authority as that for the privately-operated Mlilwane and Mkhaya nature reserves. These latter reserves are gazetted under the SNTC Act. The Conservation Trust of Swaziland was created on 2 December 1988 as a non-governmental organisation. The objectives of the Trust are to foster and financially aid the conservation, preservation and proper use of the environment, flora, fauna and antiquities of the country, and to assist in the provision of training, education and research into these areas (Patrick, 1990).

The Forestry Section of the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, which has been in existence prior to the second world war, has been primarily involved in an inventory of forest resources (which are very limited), and their perspective lies in the direction of sustainable utilisation. There are no forest reserves, and only limited amounts of moist forest occur within nature reserves and game sanctuaries (J. Culverwell, pers.comm., 1991).

A body which technically has extensive functions related to the conservation, use and improvement of natural resources is the Natural Resources Board, originally falling under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives. In practice, it appears to involve itself primarily with land-use allocation and subdivision outside Swazi Nation Land (Attwell, pers. comm., 1991).

The effectiveness of management of the main SNTC-owned reserves has been compromised in the past by a lack of formally-constituted management plans, development direction and policy. A lack of well-trained individuals and an ad hoc basis to management are other constraints. There have been recent (1988) moves towards creating a measure of co-ordination between developers, subsistence farmers, Ministries and conservationists (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

Systems Reviews Swaziland is a small land-locked Kingdom situated in south-east Africa. It is bordered on the east by Mozambique, and on all other borders by the Republic of South Africa. More than 50% of the total area is classified as Swazi Nation Land, held by the King on behalf of the Nation and consisting of communal grazing ground, and small-holdings allocated by chiefs. The biogeographic affinities are predominantly Tongaland-Pondoland regional mosaic, with Kalahari-Highveld regional mosaic in the west (Stuart and Adams, 1990). A total of 135,094ha is covered by commercial plantations of pine, eucalyptus and wattle, whilst 11,930ha of montane and highland (above 1,000m) forest occur (Government of Swaziland, 1990).

Drainage is primarily from west to east across the country. The Mbuluzi and Ingwavuma rivers rise on the highveld, while the Komati and Usutu rivers originate in South Africa. All four rivers flow through narrow gorges in crossing the Lebombo Mountains to Mozambique (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). There are no major wetlands in the country, although there are sponges found at elevations of 1400-1800 m on the summits of mountains in the western parts of the country (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). These limited wetlands are afforded a degree of protection in Malolotja and Mlilwane nature reserves of the highveld.

The country is conveniently divided into four geographical zones, which correlate closely with the known biological regional boundaries. The highveld covers 5,029 sq. km (29%) of the west of the country; it is well-watered, and is part of the Drakensberg escarpment. Elevations range between 1,100-1,862m. Steep mountains, undulating plateau country and deep ravines create a mosaic of habitat types, from open grassland and Protea and Acacia scrub savanna, to moist Afrotemperate forests. The geology of the area is complex, and parts are extremely ancient. Large areas are covered with conifer, eucalyptus and wattle plantations, the first-mentioned being amongst the largest in the world (over 70,000ha), and much of the remainder is settled by subsistence farmers. Alien plants such as black wattle and pines are spreading along river valleys throughout the area. Protected areas in the highveld areMalolotja and Mlilwane nature reserves, and the privately-owned Phophonyane and Mlumati conservation areas (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

The middleveld is a fairly uniform area of rolling country between 300-1,050m, covering 4,597 sq. km (26%) of the country. The main rocks are ancient granites and gneisses. In historical times it was vegetated by tall grassland and mixed broad leaved and Acacia savanna. This fertile area was one of the first areas in Swaziland to be settled by pastoral man, and little of it now remains in an unaltered condition. Several cattle-ranches, although much affected by bush encroachment, are the only areas where indigenous flora and fauna survive in any significant numbers. No part is formally protected, apart from an area in Mlilwane Nature Reserve, which is mostly degraded and atypical. A recent alien invader is the aggressive shrub Sesbania punicea, which is spreading along rivers (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

The lowveld is a semi-arid, flat to undulating plain on basalt, granite and sandstone between 150-300m, covering 6,416 sq. km (37%) of the country, extending up larger riverine valleys into the Middleveld. Most of the area was formerly a remarkably uniform thorn savanna of Acacia nigrescens, with Euclea-dominated thickets along saline drainages. The presence of tsetse fly and malaria afforded the indigenous flora and fauna a measure of protection from pastoral settlers and commercial ranching operations until the thirties, when DDT was used to eradicate the tsetse; malaria remains rife. Much of the region has been cleared and planted with sugar cane (over 20,000ha), cotton and citrus, and little of the remainder has avoided the bush-encroachment that often accompanies arid area high-yield cattle ranching. Protected areas are Mlawula/Ndzindza and Mkhaya nature reserves, and the nationally-owned Hlane Game Sanctuary (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

The rhyolite Lubombo mountains run from north to south along the international boundary with Mozambique, and cover 1,321 sq. km (8%) of the country; elevations range between 70-1,000m. The undulating western plateau region is vegetated either by grassland, termitaria-based thickets or mixed savanna, whilst the many ravines and valleys support a variety of moist and dry forests and thickets, with a wealth of flora and fauna. The southern half of the Lubombos have been settled by Swazi pastoralists for at least 200 years, and is subsequently much altered. The northern half, despite a number of cotton and maize farming projects, is still relatively pristine. The most significant moist forest is Jilobi, which enjoys a measure of traditional protection. Mlawula/Ndzindza Nature Reserve is the only formally protected area (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

The protected areas network began with the establishment of a very few game reserves between 1912-14, but these were subsequently degazetted to make farming land available to returning World War I veterans. The `Grimwood Report' of 1972 (funded by FAO), was one of the first informed attempts to recommend areas for formal protection, and recommendations were made for the creation and management of several of these. A further document was the Protection-worthy Areas of Swaziland survey of 1979, which was compiled under the aegis of the SNTC andlisted over 30 areas considered worthy of protection (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991). Today, the legally established protected areas network covers about 60,000ha or 3.5% of the total area of the country. In addition, there are a number of private conservation areas, which are currently not gazetted, including those proposed at Dvokolwako Diamond Mine, Lomati Valley, Mhlosinga, Mbuluzi, Simunye, Mutimuti and Phophonyane (J. Culverwell pers. comm., 1991; Masson, pers. comm., 1991).

MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986), IUCN (1987a) and Stuart and Adams (1990) outline several conservation priorities for Swaziland. Of significance is the protection of Mahamba gorge (bald ibis breeding colony), Mnyame gorge (spectacular scenery and flora), areas adjacent to the Mlawula/Ndzindza Nature Reserve complex (reserve integrity and oribi habitat) and the Makhonjwa hills (forests) (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986; IUCN, 1987a; Stuart and Adams, 1990). The north bank of the Mbuluzi gorge adjacent to Mlawula/ Ndzindza Nature Reserve has been particularly recommended for protection by a recent Forestry Section survey (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

Threats to the integrity of protected areas include overgrazing (primarily by blue wildebeest and impala) in the cases of Hlane Game Sanctuary and Mlawula/Ndzindza Nature Reserve, and a current lack of clear-cut policies with which to counter-act this. Poaching is a constant problem, specifically with the reintroduction of white rhinoceros populations in Hlane Game Sanctuary and Mlawula/Ndzindza Nature Reserve. Rivers running through nature reserves have been affected by water extraction for irrigation, pollution from an asbestos mine in South Africa, and enrichment by runoff from fertilized sugarcane fields. Over 30 species of alien plants have been recorded from Mlawula/Ndzindza Nature Reserve, the most abundant by far being the annual American forb Parthenium hysteropherus (J. Culverwell, pers. comm., 1991).

Addresses

Forestry Section, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, PO Box 162, MBABANE

Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary, PO Box 33, MBABANE (Privately managed. Managing authority is also responsible for Hlane Game Reserve and Mkhaya Wildlife Sanctuary).

Swaziland National Trust Commission (Chairman), PO Box 100, LOBAMBA (Tel: 61151/78/79)

Conservation Trust of Swaziland (Chairman), PO Box 266, MBABANE (Tel: 42451; FAX: 46705; Tlx: 2213)

References

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Villa-Lobos, J.L., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 341-342.

Government of Swaziland (1990). Forest cover map of Swaziland. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Forestry Section.

Hughes, R.H. and Hughes, J.S. (1991). Directory of African wetlands. IUCN, Gland,Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 702-706.

IUCN (1986). African wildlife laws. IUCN Environmental Policy and Occasional Paper No. 3. IUCN Environmental Law Centre, Bonn, Germany. Pp. 228-231.

IUCN (1987a). Action strategy for protected areas in the Afrotropical Realm. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge, UK. P. 47.

IUCN (1987b). Directory of Afrotropical protected areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 811-818.

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas system in the Afrotropical Realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. P. 244.

Patrick, D.H. (Ed). (1990). The Conservation Trust of Swaziland. Perskor, Mbabane, Swaziland. 14 pp.

Stuart S.N., and Adams R.J. (1990). Biodiversity in Sub-saharan Africa and its islands: conservation, management and sustainable use. Occasional Paper No. 6. Species Survival Commission, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 202-203.

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,

together with authorities responsible for their legislation

Title: Flora Protection Act

Date: 1952

Brief Description: Authorises the establishment of indigenous flora reserves, and specifies controls on the exploitation of certain protected species of plant.

Administrative Authority: Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives

Designations: Flora reserve

Title: The Game Act

Date: 1953

Brief Description: Provides for the establishment of game sanctuaries, and regulates the hunting of and trade in game animals, including game birds.

Administrative Authority: Minister of Natural Resources

Designations: Game sanctuary

Title: The National Trust Commission Act

Date: 1972

Brief Description: Provides for the establishment of various categories of protected area, including national park and nature reserve; describes the framework for the establishment of the parastatal body known as the Swaziland National Trust Commission.

Administrative Authority: Chairman, Swaziland National Trust Commission, responsible to the Minister of Natural Resources

Designations:

Nature reserve May include privately-owned land.

National park May not include privately-owned land.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xx+352pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 2: Palaearctic. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxviii+556pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 3: Afrotropical. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxii+360pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv+460pp.