1992 Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems

ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN

Area 1,648,184 sq. km

Population 54,607,000 (1990)

Natural increase: 2.01% per annum

Economic Indicators

GDP: US$ 3853 per capita (1987)

GNP: No information

Policy and Legislation The country was proclaimed an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979. Constitutional Act No. 50 states that all citizens are required to honour the conservation of nature and natural resources (Behrouzi-Rad, 1987).

In ancient Persian times areas were protected for hunting. Imperial hunting reserves were established near Tehran sometime between 1792 and 1830, and managed by the Imperial Court for the Royal family. The first wildlife reserves were established in 1927. In 1956 the Game Council was created with a policy to set up hunting centres for the protection of endangered species and the control of hunting (Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977). In 1967, the Game and Fish Department was empowered by law to declare certain areas for the protection of flora and fauna. In that year the Law of Protection and Exploitation of Forest and Range and the Law on Game and Fish were enacted. The latter was amended in March 1975.

The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act, 1974 supersedes all previous enabling nature conservation legislation. Four categories of protected natural area are identified under this law, and clauses indicated that any previously designated sites are to be reclassified (Firouz and Harrington, 1976). The protected area categories include national park (wildlife parks were redesignated as national parks in 1974), wildlife refuge, protected area and national nature monument (Firouz and Harrington, 1976). Exceptions in reclassification include Dasht-i-Naz (55ha) and Khoshkedaran (227ha), which would have been reclassified as national parks following the 1974 legislation but were so small that they were reclassified as a wildlife refuge and national nature monument respectively (Firouz and Harrington, 1976). Many other sites changed in name and designation following the 1974 reclassification (for example, Golestan National Park was originally set up in 1956 as Alweh and Ishaki Protected Region and subsequently as Mohammed Reza Shah Wildlife Park in 1964) (IUCN, 1977).

The Law of Protection and Exploitation of Forest and Range was enacted in 1967, and includes specific legislation relating to areas which may be declared as forest parks. They are administered by the Forestry and Range Organisation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources and are maintained as parks designated primarily for recreation, although often include important representatives of unique woodland stand types. Other biotic community reserves managed by national organisationsinclude the ex-Imperial Hunting Reserve near Tehran, protected from grazing and unregulated hunting and managed from the 18th century to 1979. Its status was subsequently unclear and the site has not been included in official protected areas lists since that date (Behrouzi-Rad, 1987; Firouz and Harrington, 1976).

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was ratified on 23 June 1975 and subsequently integrated into the national legislation to enable the designation of national Ramsar sites.

The Game and Fish Law and Regulations were enacted in 1967, and amended in March 1975. The Law represents the basic legal control through which exploitation is curtailed, hunting and shooting are regulated, and game species legally protected. In concert with its regulations, the Law clearly defined the concepts and legal aspects of both wildlife parks and protected areas. It provided legislation to replace the Game Council with an independent governmental organisation named the Game and Fish Department (Firouz et al., 1970). By 1991 it had become legally administered through the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (Game and Fish Department). Two categories of protection are identified by this Law; protected rivers and wetlands: areas protected from fishing in special protected rivers, in addition to all marshes, wetlands, waterways and bays along the Caspian Sea; fishing refuges or fishing controlled refuges: areas where fishing is banned or restricted (DoE, 1976).

International Activities The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was ratified on 23 June 1975 with 18 sites listed. The Convention concerning the World Natural and Cultural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was accepted on 26 February 1975, although no natural sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage list. Iran has participated in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme since June 1976 and ratified the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution in the Kuwait Action Plan region of the UNEP Regional seas Programme in 1979. Iran is a member of United Nations, the Colombo Plan and of OPEC. A joint agreement was signed with the USSR in 1973 to combat pollution in the Caspian Sea (Coad, 1980-1981).

Argan International Park (65,750ha) was placed under United Nations patronage at the Ramsar Wetlands Convention meeting in 1971, following recommendations from the then Shah of Iran (IUCN, 1977; Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977). It was proposed to place the site in trust "to conserve and administer the site for all mankind" (IUCN, 1977; Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977).

Administration and Management The main administrative and management body is the Department of the Environment, which was established in March 1972 and is divided into a series of divisions dealing with different environmental matters. Under the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act it superseded the Game and Fish Department in 1974. The latter Department was established in 1967 and had beenresponsible for the protection of wildlife, hunting, and fishing in inland waters as well as protection of the natural environment. It had succeeded the original Game Council of Iran established in 1956.

The Division of Parks and Wildlife, Department of the Environment is the main body undertaking protected areas management. Generally, the Department undertakes long-term environmental studies and management projects, with responsibilities which include the conservation and enhancement of wildlife resources and the prevention of pollution. It also puts forward regulations on habitat management. Its long-term programmes for the conservation of wilderness sites and wildlife include the cleaning of the Caspian Sea and Iranian rivers and prevention of air pollution in Tehran and Isfahan. The Department has introduced environmental legislation regarding pollution (Behrouzi-Rad, 1987; Sardar, 1982). Recommendations for the establishment of reserves or changes in reserve classification are prepared by the Division of Parks and Wildlife, reviewed by all appropriate divisions of the Department of the Environment, and presented to the High Council of the Environment for approval. The arrangement ensures that all government organisations with jurisdiction over lands proposed for protection have an opportunity to assess the impact on resources administered by their organisations (Firouz and Harrington, 1976). After the proclamation of the Islamic Republic in 1979, the Department of the Environment became responsible for environmental preservation according to a new philosophy, policy aim and strategy, centred on the continued utilisation of environmental resources. Originally, protected areas management was divided between direct control by local Department of the Environment personnel and local councils, including hunters and fishermen as well as departmental personnel. In-service training in the Department of the Environment includes a three-month "environmental guard" curriculum and the two-year "environmental officer" curriculum. A four-year curriculum in environmental conservation has been planned at the University of Tehran and the Department has developed cooperative education programmes with other Iranian universities (Firouz and Harrington, 1976).

Control of grazing and forestry within reserves is determined by regulations adopted jointly by the Forest and Range Organisation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the Department of the Environment. The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources was created in 1967 and subsequently combined with the revolutionary organisation called the Construction Crusade in 1987/1988. Control of mining, likewise, is determined by agreement between the Department of the Environment and the Ministry of Economy.

Control over water resources must be approved by the Ministry of Energy (Firouz and Harrington, 1976).

Research is conducted in ministries and universities. Almost all ministries have their own research institutes and centres (Coad, 1980-1981). The Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran includes the Department of Forestry and of Forest Economics which conducts studies relating to forest status and protection.

As regards management efficiency, in view of the large size of the country and the limited funds at the disposal of the former Game Council, it was recognised from its inception that if a significant percentage of available resources were allocated to areas of special importance from an ecological point of view, the efficacy and the success of such conservation measures would be greatly enhanced. Thus, the concept of protected regions was born. In those regions hunting was prohibited unless a licence (severely limiting bags) was obtained from the Game Council. Utilisation of range land and forestry incorporated within their confines was subject to restrictions promulgated by that organisation and by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, but in principal not excluded. The degree of success in enforcement of these later restrictions was variable, depending mainly on the local stature and initiative of the game officer in charge of a protected region (Firouz et al., 1970).

Systems Reviews Lying as a bridge between four major plant geographical regions (Irano-Turanian, Euro-Siberian, Saharo-Arabian and Sudanian), Iran is one of the largest speciation centres of Holarctic desert flora (Firouz et al., 1970; Tavakoli, 1987). The Irano-Turanian element comprises about 69% of the flora. Euro-Siberian and Sudanian elements make up 5% (Zohary, 1963 cited in IUCN, 1986). Iran borders the Persian or Arabian Gulf and is bounded by Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, USSR and Turkey. Up to 11.5% of the land area is under cultivation, and more than half is classified as uncultivable. Approximately 60% of the country is classified as desert and semi-desert with sparse open scrub of Acacia, Ziziphus and Prosopis. Hot desert in the south-east supports sparse open scrub, on rocky slopes; herbaceous communities with Atriplex and Heliotropium in sandy depressions; steppe and deserts with Artemisia and Astragalus occur over most of the centre and east of the country; dry deciduous forests in the west; Pistacia-Amygdalus steppe forest in the south-west; Juniperus steppe forests in the north; broad-leaved temperate forest in the north up to 2,500m (Zohary, 1963 cited in IUCN, 1986). There are up to 3.75 million ha of woodland, an estimated 8,900ha of Avicennia mangrove, a rich and diverse marine fauna, seagrass beds and coral (Harrington, 1977; Kunkel, 1977, cited in IUCN, 1986; UNEP/IUCN, 1988).

Iran supports some 7,000 plant species of which about 20% are endemic. Most endemics are found in mountains; centres of endemism include the peaks of the Alborz and Zagros massifs, solitary peaks in the central plain, the mountain ridges south of Kashan and Yazd, and to the north of Kerman. The central plateau is species poor (Zohary, 1963, cited in IUCN, 1986). Between 1967 and 1980, 12,000ha of forest plantation had been established and almost 70,000ha of desert lands planted or seeded (Coad, 1980-1981).

At the end of 1965 there were 11 protected regions with a total area of 600,000ha (Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977). Up to 1976, five rivers had been declared as protected, in addition to all marshes, wetlands, waterways and bays along the Caspian Sea (DoE, 1976). A number of fishing refuges or fishing controlled refuges had also been established by that time. By 1977, the number of protected areas had risen to 69 sites covering a total area of 7,998,168ha or 5% of the country (excluding protectedand recreational woodlands). The 11 national parks totalled 1.8 million ha; 4 national nature monuments 12,267ha; 24 protected areas 3.8 million ha and 31 wildlife refuges 2.3 million ha (Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977). By November 1987, the number of national parks had been reduced to seven due to a change of status. There were 18 national Ramsar sites, 34 protected areas and 26 wildlife refuges (Behrouzi-Rad, in litt., 1987). By April 1989, there were 7 national parks (1,075,300ha), 5 national nature monuments (18,978ha), 26 wildlife refuges (2,585,024ha), 36 protected areas (4,922,718ha) and 18 national Ramsar wetlands (1,350,750ha). The total area protected is currently 10,017,710ha (1991).

Environmental problems include the continued widespread destruction of forests by charcoaling, shifting cultivation and overgrazing by goats (Anon., 1987; Gour-Tanguay, 1977). A sudden relaxation of restrictions and stiff penalties for timber felling, livestock grazing in forest and fishing in 1979 led to widespread abuse (Anon., 1987). Poaching and hunting have increased dramatically and have been largely uncontrolled in the past (Firouz and Harrington, 1976). There are reports of motorised poachers at Kavir National Park and unlicensed sturgeon fishermen dynamiting areas of the Caspian Sea (Anon., 1987). Prior to 1979, felling of trees, charcoal-burning and other exploitation were permitted under a free system (Gour-Tanguay, 1977). Many protected natural areas created prior to establishment of the Islamic Republic were imposed on the local population and, as a result, the enforcement of the game laws and wardening of reserves had not been totally effective (Firouz and Harrington, 1976; Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977). Throughout the 1970s fixed boundaries were not allotted to a number of protected areas and they were not zoned nor effectively protected (Kopp and Yachkaschi, 1977).

One of the major environmental threats lasting much of the last decade has been the consequences of the military conflict between Iran and Iraq, although the effects of air pollution from burning Kuwaiti oil wells in the 1990-91 Iraq-Kuwait conflict have also been reported in Iran (UNEP-WCMC, 1991). In 1983, the Nowruz oil field in the Persian Gulf, north-west of Kharg Island, was damaged, resulting in severe pollution of the sea by oil and gas leakage. As a result of hostilities, Shadegan Marshes and the tidal mudflats of Khor-al Amaya and Khor Musa, a listed Ramsar wetland, was reported to be damaged, the cause being attributed to the use of chemical weapons by Iraq (Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1987). The effects of the 1990-91 military conflict on the same Iranian wetlands (adjacent to the Iraqi frontier) are still largely unknown. Loss of wetlands continues to be one of the most crucial environmental problems. In the 1970s 12 million migratory birds were recorded as seasonal visitors to wetlands. Ten years later the number had fallen to three million, and in the present decade to less than one million, due not only to pollution and hunting, but also to loss of habitat through reclamation of wetlands for agriculture. For example, the internationally important wetland of Anseli Mordab, a designated Ramsar site, has been partially altered by the construction of canals for a locally-conceived reclamation project (Tavakoli, 1987). Many other wetlands are threatened with water loss, ironically because of irrigation schemes. The two Seistan lakes Hamun-e-Hirmand and Hamun-e-Sabari were largely dry during the winter of 1976 because their main watersource, the Helmand River, was restricted by the Kajaki dam in Afghanistan. Devegetation, irrigation and industrial pollution and faunal introduction cause dangerous losses of freshwater ecosystems and impact on freshwater fish (Coad, 1980-1981). The petro- chemical industry on the Gulf shore and islands continues to pose a number of threats to the environment, not least pollution. In autumn 1987 flocks of migratory birds are presumed to have mistaken pools of waste oil around Iranian refineries for water and were trapped (Tavakoli, 1987). The movement of oil tankers through the Gulf presents a continued threat to marine life and to the increasingly important Gulf fishery. Associated with expanding industry is a growing coastal population. The population of Banda Abbas, for example, until recently a relatively small port and fish processing centre, is targeted to reach one million by the 1990s (Harrington, 1976).

Other Relevant Information Ruled as an absolute monarchy by the Shahs until the granting of the first Constitution in 1906, Persia was renamed Iran in 1935. Civil unrest in 1979 led to the exile of the Shah and supreme authority passed to a religious leader, the leader of the Shi'a moslems, and the Islamic Republic was declared in 1979. Foreign tourism is virtually non-existent at the present time, although in the past it had some prominence even in protected areas: in the 1970s the Tourist-Consult group recommended marine sites such as Chah Bahar for protection (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Tourism, and the potential for ecotourism in protected areas, is regarded as being of major significance in the near future (Scott, in litt., 1991).

Addresses

Department of the Environment (Director), PO Box 5181, 15876, TEHRAN (Tel: 1 966441/891261-69; Telex: 215064 DOE CIR)

Forestry and Rangelands, Forestry and Range Organisation (Vice-Minister), Ministry of Agriculture, TEHRAN

References

Anon. (1989). Sharper lines in Arabia's sands. The Economist. 21 January 1989. P. 82.

Coad, B.W. (1980-1981). Environmental change and its impact on the freshwater fishes of Iran. Biological Conservation 19: 51-80.

DoE (1976). Extract from the Game Laws and Regulations, 1975-1976. Department of the Environment. P. 1354.

FAO (1979). Assistance in wildlife conservation and management. Iran, Project findings and recommendations. Report prepared for the Government of Iran by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations acting as executing agency for the United Nations Development Programme. FO: DP/IRA/76/001. Terminal Report. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 26 pp.

Firouz, E. (1974). Environment Iran. National Society for the Conservation of Natural Resources and Human Environment.

Firouz, E. and Harrington, F. (1976). Iran: concepts of biotic community conservation.A paper presented at the international meeting on ecological guidelines for the use of Natural Resources in the Middle East and SW Asia. Persepolis, Iran, 24-30 May 1975. IUCN Occasional Paper No. 15. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. 32 pp.

Firouz, E., Hassinger, J.D. and Fergusson, D.A. (1970). The wildlife parks and protected regions of Iran. Biological Conservation 3(1): 37-45.

Harrington, F.A. (1975) Iran: surveys of the Southern Iranian coastline with recommendations for additional marine reserves. Country reports No. 4. In: Promotion of the Establishment of Marine Parks and Reserves in the Northern Indian ocean including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Papers and proceedings of the Regional Meeting held at Tehran, Iran, 6-10 March 1975. IUCN Publications New Series No. 35. Pp. 50-75

Kopp, H. and Yachkaschi, A. (1977). Development and status of protected areas in Iran. Parks 2(4): 11-13.

Maher abou Jaafer (1984). National parks and nature reserves in the Arab World. The Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization, Tunis. 112 pp.

Mohammed Reza, A. (1985). The endangered benthic organisms in effects of oil spilled in Nowruz platform in the Persian Gulf. Symposium on endangered marine animals and marine parks. Cochin, India, 12-16 January 1985.

Montague, K. and Bruun, B. (1987). Biological diversity in North Africa, the Middle East and Southwest Asia; a directory of organizations and institutions. HLCF, New York, USA. 134 pp.

Ramsar Convention Bureau (1987) Convention on wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat (Ramsar, 1971). Third meeting of the conference of the contracting parties. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, 27 May 5 June 1987. Preliminary printing % Conference Report. Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland.

Sardar, Z. (1982). Iran. Science and technology in the Middle East: a guide to issues, organisations and institutions. Longman, London and New York. P. 121

Tavakoli, E. (1987). Iran environment. Iran Almanak. Pp. 44-48.

UNEP (1987). Clearing house developments. UNEP Regional Bulletin for Europe 4. P. 9.

UNEP/IUCN (1988) Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 440 pp.

UNEP-WCMC (1991a). Gulf War Environmental Service: impact on the marine environment. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 37 pp.

UNEP-WCMC (1991b). Gulf War Environmental Service: impact of atmospheric pollution on the terrestrial environment. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 37 pp.

ANNEX

Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated,

together with authorities responsible for their administration

Title: Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act

Date: 1974

Brief description: The current main law covering nature conservation, the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act of 1974, supersedes all previous enabling legislation. Four categories of protected natural area can be established and protected; any previously designated sites have been reclassified under this law.

Administrative authority: Department of the Environment

Designations:

National park (Park-e-Melli) (previously designated as wildlife park) Relatively large areas of natural or semi-natural land. They must represent outstanding examples of the nation's geological, ecological, geographic, historical, archaeological and scenic features, to be set aside in perpetuity for their preservation, protection, conservation and recreational potential. Notable requirements include parks possessing unique flora and flora and relatively pristine remnants of the regional flora representative of particular geographical zones.

An area is considered to be of national significance if: it is of sufficient scenic beauty; has unique geomorphological and landscape features; possesses diverse and/or unique examples of biotic communities or ecosystems; and is of sufficient size to permit public use, management, research, zoning and protection.

Management includes minimal measures necessary for the essential conservation of the area, controls being required to limit the damage from visitor use through zoning of recreational areas. Many parks permit human occupation, livestock grazing and agriculture although attempts are being made for them to be phased out. Permitted activities include provisions for culling of wildlife through authorised hunters.

Wildlife refuge (Panahgah-e-Hayat-e-Vahsh) (renamed from wildlife reserve in accordance with the law of 1974) Areas of representative habitat types set aside for conservation and management of native wildlife and the protection and management of its habitat; including breeding, spawning, wintering and other areas. Management practice includes restoration of these resources.

Recreational use by the public is secondary to the purpose of management for wildlife and vegetation restoration. Wildlife refuges include public use zones in which farming, livestock grazing, vegetation cutting or other land use activities are permitted and sometimes encouraged to enhance the wildlife values of thereserves.

Hunting, fishing, trapping, poisoning, or capturing of wildlife and collection of flora is prohibited except were such activities are consonant with management practices. Settlements and human activity are restricted, eliminated or prohibited according to Department of the Environment regulations. Wildlife refuges may include public use zones in which farming, livestock grazing, vegetation cutting or other land use activities are permitted and sometimes encouraged to enhance the wildlife values of the reserves.

Protected area (Maneqe-ye-Hefazat Shode): (previously designated as protected or restricted region) Established to serve various environmental conservation and protection needs. The sites are set up with multiple use and single use objectives, including ecological, scientific, economic, educational, cultural and recreational needs. Selection criteria differentiate 20 categories ranging from protection of unique, unusual or representative flora and fauna, to unusual habitats or species at extremes of their range, to sites where the influence of man on natural ecosystems can be measured. Areas are established to provide conditions conducive to the regeneration and amelioration of representative habitats and/or endangered species. Such regions are also envisaged as centres of breeding stock for the repopulation of wildlife species that are on the decline in adjacent areas.

Unlicensed hunting is prohibited. The utilisation of range-land and forest within the boundaries of protected areas are subject to restrictions promulgated with the co-operation of the Ministry of Agriculture. If livestock grazing, woodcutting or other activities are likely to alter the natural environment they can be curtailed in accordance with legislation of 1974.

Human populations are often present, but in practice an effort has been made to exclude villages and other habitations. Policies include attempts to phase out human settlement, grazing and agriculture. In a number of cases, research and limited tourism occur. Protected areas often act as buffer zones encompassing national parks, ensuring that development can be regulated and limit or avoid management problems.

National nature monument (Asar-e-Tabii-ye-Malli) Small areas designated for the preservation of special features illustrating typical, unique or unusual phenomena of geological, scientific, historical and/or natural history interest. Prospective sites for this category have no minimum size. To be considered of national significance a site must contain at least one of the following: outstanding geological formations or features illustrating a specific geological process; specialised physiographic areas; aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems containing representative, unique or unusual characteristics; habitats supporting endangered species; examples of scenic grandeur; individual specimens or groups of specimens representing the nation's zoological, botanic, geologicalor natural history. Such sites may or may not be open to visitors depending on the requirements of the feature for protection and preservation. Management to maintain certain species or to expose features for study is considered acceptable.

Sources: DoE, 1976; Firouz and Harrington, 1976; Firouz et al., 1970

Title: Law of protection and exploitation of forest and range

Date: 1967

Brief description: Legislation connected with forest exploitation

Administrative authority: Forestry and Range Organisation, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Designations:

Forest park Designated primarily for recreation, although often including important representative or unique woodland stand types.

Sources: DoE, 1976; Firouz and Harrington, 1976; Firouz et al., 1970

Title: Game and Fish Law

Date: 1967, amended March 1975

Brief description: The Law was amended in March 1975

Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Designations:

Protected river Areas designated to protect natural habitats from fishing. Specified areas include protected rivers, in addition to all marshes, wetlands, waterways and bays along the Caspian Sea, all of which are declared protected insofar as fishing is concerned.

Fishing refuge Designated areas set up to act as non-fishing or restricted fishing areas.

Sources: DoE, 1976; Firouz and Harrington, 1976

Title: "National Ramsar wetlands" Law

Date: 1975

Brief description: An international convention, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat was ratified on 23 June 1975 and subsequently integrated into national legislation providing for the establishment of national Ramsar sites.

Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Designations:

National Ramsar wetland Areas which afford protection against hunting and other forms of threat.

Source: DoE, 1976

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xx+352pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 2: Palaearctic. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxviii+556pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 3: Afrotropical. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxii+360pp.

IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical. Prepared by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv+460pp.